In Boserup's chapter 5, women in a men's world, she discusses how many urban areas are 'men's towns.' What makes them so?

• Migration--in some areas, especially in Africa and India, men are more likely to migrate for work, leaving behind the household, seeking employment (back to the 'pull' of migration);
• Social isolation--in some situations, towns are 'male towns' because women are secluded, essentially sequestered in their households. Afghanistan under the Taliban is a good example, but in many countries where conservative Islam predominates, this is the case to a lesser extent as well.

The differences in population could be quite dramatic. Think of the American West 150-200 years ago, and the frontier towns. Also consider the different dynamics of migration. We're talking about examples where the men are more likely to migrate, increasing the population of men relative to women, or where the women because of culture or religion take little part in the public life of the city.

Boserup also mentions 'semi male towns.' These are more likely found in Africa, but also in Southeast Asia (Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Philippines). In these cities, women often dominate market trade.

Why the gender differences?

Cultural considerations:

• Hindu and Arab cultures may discourage women's public participation in commerce (this may be less apparent in secular governments--it will be interesting to see the transition in Iraq, from a secular but brutal regime, to one that is presumably more democratic and where Islamic fundamentalism plays a more important role).
• In Arab countries, women account for < 1% of trade (whiule in some countries in Africa, especially Ghana, Nigeria, they account for over 50% of trade);
• Islamic, Chinese cultures tend to have more male-dominated trade. For instance, Boserup discusses differences between North (less participation by women in commerce) and South (more) India. African countries where Islam prevails are different: they are less likely to restrict women's economic activities. In other words, the pre-existing culture has exerted a strong influence on the version of Islam that is practiced.
• Also, Atlantic Latin America, where the Spanish patriarchal influence is stronger, shows less participation by women in commerce that the Pacific side--Peru, Ecuador, etc.

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Division of labor

• Women tend to trade more in agricultural products
  • They tend to be more prominent where female farming systems exist, as a result (and where is this?)
• the type of farming system thus has an influence over division of labor in commerce (although this is changing with increasing economic globalization and free trade)
  • Some women sell their own production, while others are traders (buying and selling);
• Natural resources--women often take advantage of different resources than men, often times resources with the lowest rates of return (those most difficult to convert from a plant resource into a commodity, often because of labor-intensive processing required). Commerce in resources with higher rates of return (e.g., commercial sale of fuelwood) may be prohibitive for women to engage in because of their 'time poverty.'
• Other work
  • In markets: Women less likely to have permanent structures, places in a market;
  • domestic work: especially in cities, this is often work that staves off unemployment--last resort work for those women with few other opportunities;
  • specialization: sometimes women may specialize in certain areas, for instance beer brewing in West Africa, making street food. Sex work is most often done by women (who nevertheless are often being exploited by their male bosses)
  • scale: women are more likely to engage in petty commerce. In many areas of the world, foreigners have become the merchant class for larger scale commerce--the Lebanse in West Africa, Indians in East, Central and Southern Africa, Chinese in many parts of Asia.
  • factory work: this again can depend on the area of the world. In general, women do the low-wage garment work on sewing machines. There is a huge market for this in countries in Asia, and less so in Latin America (less to because the Asian labor market is cheaper and many corporations have moved production there). Women may be labeled as more 'nimble-fingered' and better able to work the machines. However rarely are they considered or trained for higher-level management jobs. Read Fernandez-Kelly's article for a good description of just how 'unskilled' these workers are.
  • formal versus informal labor markets
    • formal markets haven't caught on in many areas of the third world. Grocery stores, for instance, are frequented by those familiar with them, and the upper middle class. But most people still do much of their shopping for food at open air markets. In grocery stores, the prices are higher. In the informal sector, on the street, there is often fierce competition to sell produce, etc., and very low return for those doing it, so 'bargains' can be had because of the formal sector's inability to absorb much of the workforce;
    • what's likely to happen in a transition to a more formal economy?
      • First, we know that women tend to be less educated than men, and have the disadvantage of living in patriarchal societies where institutions are often more difficult for them to gain access to;
      • Second, there are more educated but unemployed men in cities, who are better positioned to take any available, attractive jobs;
      • Third, women are less mobile--most still have domestic duties to think about and tend to, limiting their ability to seek employment far from home